| Titre : |
Ecotoxicology |
| Type de document : |
texte imprimé |
| Auteurs : |
Campbel Peter G. C., Auteur ; et autresl |
| Editeur : |
Cambridge University Press |
| Année de publication : |
2022 |
| Importance : |
576 pages |
| Format : |
21 x 28 cm |
| ISBN/ISSN/EAN : |
978-1-108-83469-8 |
| Langues : |
Anglais (eng) |
| Catégories : |
Ecologie
|
| Index. décimale : |
577 - Ecologie |
| Résumé : |
"Ecotoxicology offers a comprehensive overview of the science underpinning the recognition and management of environmental contamination. It describes the toxicology of environmental contaminants, the methods used for assessing their toxicity and ecological impacts, and approaches employed to mitigate pollution and ecological health risks globally. Chapters covers the latest advances in research, including genomics, natural toxins, endocrine disruption and the toxicology of radioactive substances. The second half of the book focuses on applications, such as cradle-to-grave effects of selected industries, legal and economic approaches to environmental regulation, ecological risk assessment, and contaminated site remediation. With short capsules written by invited experts, numerous case studies from around the world and further reading lists, this textbook is designed for advanced undergraduate and graduate one-semester courses. It is also a valuable reference for graduate students and professionals. Online resources for instructors and students are also available" (site web de l'éditeur) |
| Note de contenu : |
CONTENTS :
Preamble
Page xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgements xix
PART I APPROACHES AND METHODS 1
1 The History and Emergence of Ecotoxicology as a Science 3
Learning Objectives 3
1.1 The Science of Ecotoxicology 3
1.2 Historical Landmarks in the Development of Ecotoxicology 7
1.2.1 Silent Spring and Pesticides 7
1.2.2 Mercury 10
1.2.3 Acidification 10
1.2.4 Industrial Waste Disposal and Brownfields 11
1.2.5 Oil Spills 12
1.2.6 Our Stolen Future and Endocrine Disruptors 12
1.3 The Emergence of the Science of Ecotoxicology 13
1.4 The Turning Point and Formal Regulation of Toxic Substances 15
1.5 Solutions That May Lead to New Problems 16
1.6 Conclusions 17
Summary 18
Review Questions and Exercises 18
Abbreviations 19
References 19
2
Measuring Toxicity 23
2.1 The Basics of Environmental Toxicology 23
2.1.1 Concepts and Definitions 24
2.1.1.1 What Is Toxicity? 24
2.1.1.2 Chemical Structure vs Toxicity 24
2.1.1.3 Nutrients vs Toxicants 25
2.1.1.4 Expressions of Toxicity 26
2.2 Designing a Toxicity Test: What Is the Question? 28
2.2.1 Test Organisms 29
2.2.1.1 Laboratory Cultures of Test Organisms 30
2.2.1.2 Life Stages Tested and Responses Measured 31
2.2.2 Test Media and Routes of Exposure 32
2.2.3 Exposure Gradients 33
2.2.4 Exposure Time 33
2.2.5 Control Treatments 36
2.2.6 Other Test Conditions That Affect Measured Toxicity 36
2.2.7 Characterizing Test Conditions and Chemical Exposures 38
2.2.8 Complexities in Toxicity Testing 39
2.2.8.1 Toxicity Tests for Sparingly Soluble Compounds 39
2.2.8.2 Sediment and Soil Toxicity Tests 39
2.2.8.3 Standard vs ‘Realistic’ Toxicity Tests 41
2.2.8.4 Surrogate Species for Routine Testing 41
2.3 Statistics for Toxicity Tests 42
2.3.1 Regression Analyses for Computing Toxicity 42
2.3.1.1 Data Types and Transformations 43
2.3.1.2 Control Data 44
2.3.2 Hypothesis Testing: Multiple Regression Analyses 44
2.3.3 Predictive Toxicology: Single Compounds 45
2.3.3.1 Acute to Chronic Ratios (ACRs) 46
2.3.3.2 Species Sensitivity Distributions (SSDs) 47
2.3.3.3 Quantitative Structure – Activity Relationships (QSARs) 47
2.3.4 Predictive Toxicology: Mixtures 48
2.3.4.1 Toxic Unit (TU) Model 48
2.3.4.2 Toxic Equivalent Factor (TEF) Model 49
2.3.4.3 Target Lipid Model 49
2.3.4.4 Metal Mixtures 50
2.3.4.5 Dissecting Complex Mixtures 51
2.3.5 Moving Away from Traditional Toxicity Tests 52
Summary 54
Review Questions and Exercises 54
Abbreviations 55
References 56
3
Contaminant Uptake and Bioaccumulation: Mechanisms, Kinetics and Modelling 61
3.1 General Considerations 61
3.1.1 Composition and Structure of Biological Membranes 62
3.1.2 Transport of Solutes Across Cell Membranes 64
3.1.2.1 Diffusion Through the Lipid Bilayer 65
3.1.2.2 Diffusion Through Membrane Pores and Channels 65
3.1.2.3 Carrier-mediated Transport 69
3.1.3 Endocytosis 71
3.1.4 Transcellular Transport (e.g., Gill;Intestine; Lung) 71
3.1.5 Ecotoxicological Perspective on Transmembrane Transport Processes 72
3.2 Uptake Routes 73
3.2.1 Skin 73
3.2.2 Lungs 73
3.2.3 Gills 74
3.2.4 Digestive System 75
3.2.5 Olfactory System 76
3.2.6 Plant Foliage and Roots 76
3.2.7 Boundary Layers 78
3.2.8 Uptake by Endocytosis 78
3.2.9 How Different Exposure Routes Affect the Rates of Toxicant Uptake 79
3.3 Elimination Routes 79
3.4 Bioaccumulation and Uptake – Elimination Kinetics 79
3.4.1 Toxicant Uptake: Differences Between Lipophilic and Hydrophilic Molecules 81
3.4.2 Toxicokinetics 83
3.4.2.1 One-compartment Model 83
3.4.2.2 Two-compartment Model 84
3.5 Biotransformations 85
3.5.1 Metals 85
3.5.2 Organic Xenobiotics 86
3.6 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification 87
3.6.1 Metals 87
3.6.2 Bioaccumulation of Persistent Organic Contaminants 88
3.6.2.1 Lipophilic Contaminants 88
3.6.2.2 Interplay Between Bioenergetics and Bioaccumulation of Lipophilic Contaminants 90
3.6.2.3 Proteinophilic Contaminants 91
Summary 91
Review Questions and Exercises 92
Abbreviations 93
References 93
Appendix 3.1: Kinetics of a Saturable Transmembrane Carrier System Transporting a Chemical Substrate 95
Appendix 3.2: Uptake/Loss Kinetics in a Single-compartment System 95
4
Methods in Ecotoxicology 99
4.1 Moving Beyond Environmental Toxicology 99
4.2 Laboratory Versus Field Studies of Ecotoxicology: Strengths and Weaknesses 100
4.3 Surveys, Monitoring and Assessment 102
4.3.1 Relating Cause and Effect by Surveys and Monitoring 102
Case Study 4.1 Upstream – Downstream Studies to Assess Whether Pulp-mill Effluents Affect the Sexual Maturation of Fish 104
4.3.2 Ecoepidemiology: Assessing the Strength of Proposed Cause – Effect Relationships 105
Case Study 4.2 The Ecoepidemiological Case for Cancer in Fish Caused by Sediment Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds (PACs) 107
4.3.3 Markers and Indicators of Chemical Exposure and Effects 107
4.3.3.1 Chemical Markers 108
4.3.3.2 Biomarkers 108
4.3.3.3 Bioindicators 109
4.3.3.4 The Sediment Quality Triad 111
4.3.3.5 Summary: Markers and Indicators 112
4.3.4 Palaeo-ecotoxicology: Retrospective Assessment of Contamination and Toxicity 112
Case Study 4.3 Evidence from Palaeo-ecotoxicology for a Chemical Cause of Reproductive Failure of Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) in Lake Ontario 114
4.3.5 Monitoring the Human Food Supply 115
4.4 Field Experiments 117
4.4.1 In Situ Toxicity Tests 117
4.4.2 Experimental Plots 118
Case Study 4.4 The Effectiveness of Fertilizers in Promoting Degradation of Crude Oil Spilled on a Vegetated Wetland 118
4.4.3 Experimental Ecosystems 119
Case Study 4.5 Whole-lake Experiment with an Endocrine Disruptor 122
4.5 Modelling Environmental Fate, Behaviour, Distribution and Effects of Chemicals 122
4.5.1 Chemical Fate Modelling 123
4.5.2 Bioaccumulation and Effects Modelling 126
Case Study 4.6 PCB Contamination of the Southern Resident Killer Whale 128
4.5.3 Integrated Effects Modelling 129
Summary 130
Review Questions and Exercises 131
Abbreviations 131
References 132
5
Ecotoxicogenomics 139
5.1 Environmental ‘Omics’: A Role in Ecotoxicology Research 139
5.2 Ecotoxicology and Transcriptomics 141
5.2.1 Application of Ecotoxicogenomics 142
5.3 Ecotoxicology and Proteomics 144
5.4 Ecotoxicology and Metabolomics/ Lipidomics 146
5.5 Ecotoxicology and Epigenetics 147
5.6 Environmental DNA (eDNA) 149
5.7 Ecotoxicology and the Microbiome (Metagenomics) 149
5.8 Ecotoxicology and Bioinformatics 150
5.9 Omics and Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs) 152
5.10 Omics in Regulatory Toxicology 153
5.10.1 Computational Toxicology in Regulatory Toxicology 154
Case Study 5.1 Omics to Reveal Mechanisms Underlying Glyphosate Toxicity in Invertebrates and Vertebrates 155
5.10.2 Environmental Omics in Regulatory Toxicology 157
5.10.3 Challenges and Considerations 157
5.11 Emerging Applications for Omics in Ecotoxicology 159
5.11.1 Genome-wide CRISPR Screens in Ecotoxicology 160
5.11.2 Multi-omics, Exposome and Exposomics in Ecotoxicology 161
Summary 161
Review Questions and Exercises 162
Abbreviations 162
References 163
PART II TOXICOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL SUBSTANCES 169
6
Metals and Metalloids 171
6.1 Introduction 171
6.2 Biogeochemistry of Metals and Metalloids 174
6.2.1 General Properties: Metal Speciation 174
6.2.2 Mobilization, Binding, Transport and Chemical Forms of Metals in the Environment 178
6.3 Biological Availability of Metals in Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems 179
6.3.1 General Considerations 180
6.3.2 Aquatic Environments: Dissolved Metals 180
6.3.3 Aquatic Environments: Particulate Metals 184
6.3.4 Terrestrial Environments 185
6.3.5 Diet-borne Metals 186
6.4 Mechanisms of Metal Toxicity 187
6.4.1 Alteration of Enzyme Conformation 188
6.4.2 Displacement of Essential Cations 188
6.4.3 Oxidative Stress 189
6.4.4 Changes to Cellular Differentiation 190
6.4.5 Behavioural Effects 190
Capsule 6.1 Metal Effects on Fish Olfaction 191
(Gregory G. Pyle)
6.5 Metal Detoxification and Tolerance 195
6.5.1 Metal Speciation Within Cells 195
6.5.2 Determination of Subcellular Metal Partitioning 196
6.5.3 Links Among Changes in Metal Exposure, Changes in Metal Subcellular Distribution and the Onset of Deleterious Effects 197
6.5.3.1 Laboratory Observations 198
6.5.3.2 Field Observations 199
Case Study 6.1 Response of Native Freshwater Animals to Metals Derived from Base-metal Smelter Emissions 199
6.5.4 Metal Tolerance 202
6.5.4.1 Occurrence and Origin 202
6.5.4.2 Approaches 202
6.5.4.3 Taxonomic Distribution of Tolerance 203
6.5.4.4 Tolerance Mechanisms 203
6.5.4.5 Ecotoxicological Implications and Practical Applications 205
6.6 Organometals (Hg, Pb, Sn, As, Sb, Se) 206
6.7 Abiotic Factors Affecting Metal Toxicity 206
6.7.1 Temperature 206
6.7.2 pH 207
6.7.3 Hardness 208
6.7.4 Salinity 208
6.7.5 Dissolved Organic Matter 209
6.8 Metal-specific Sections 209
6.8.1 Mercury 210
6.8.1.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 210
6.8.1.2 Biogeochemistry 212
6.8.1.3 Mercury Methylation 214
6.8.1.4 Biogeochemical Cycle 215
6.8.1.5 Mercury Biomagnification 217
6.8.1.6 Environmental Factors Affecting Mercury Bioaccumulation 219
6.8.1.7 Mercury Bioaccumulation and Monitoring 221
6.8.1.8 Ecotoxicity 221
6.8.1.9 Detoxification and Tolerance 224
6.8.1.10 Mercury Highlights 225
6.8.2 Cadmium 225
6.8.2.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 226
6.8.2.2 Biogeochemistry 226
6.8.2.3 Biochemistry 226
6.8.2.4 Ecotoxicity 227
6.8.2.5 Cadmium Highlights 228
6.8.3 Lead 228
6.8.3.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 228
6.8.3.2 Biogeochemistry 230
6.8.3.3 Biochemistry 231
6.8.3.4 Ecotoxicity 232
6.8.3.5 Lead Highlights 234
6.8.4 Copper 234
6.8.4.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 234
6.8.4.2 Biogeochemistry 235
6.8.4.3 Biochemistry 236
6.8.4.4 Ecotoxicity 237
6.8.4.5 Copper Highlights 239
6.8.5 Nickel 239
6.8.5.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 239
6.8.5.2 Biogeochemistry 240
6.8.5.3 Biochemistry 240
6.8.5.4 Ecotoxicity 241
6.8.5.5 Nickel Highlights 243
6.8.6 Zinc 243
6.8.6.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 243
6.8.6.2 Biogeochemistry 244
6.8.6.3 Biochemistry 245
6.8.6.4 Ecotoxicity 246
6.8.6.5 Zinc Highlights 248
6.8.7 Arsenic 248
6.8.7.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 248
6.8.7.2 Biogeochemistry 249
6.8.7.3 Biochemistry 251
6.8.7.4 Ecotoxicity 252
6.8.7.5 Arsenic Highlights 254
6.8.8 Selenium 255
6.8.8.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 255
6.8.8.2 Biogeochemistry 255
6.8.8.3 Biochemistry 256
6.8.8.4 Ecotoxicity 257
6.8.8.5 Selenium Highlights 259
Summary 259
Review Questions and Exercises 260
Element-specific Questions 261
Abbreviations 262
References 262
7
Organic Compounds 275
7.1 Classes of Organic Compounds 275
7.2 Fate in the Environment 277
7.3 Uptake into Organisms and Bioaccumulation 280
7.4 Cellular Receptors 281
7.5 Metabolism 282
7.5.1 Phase I Reactions 283
7.5.2 Phase II Reactions 287
7.5.3 Phase III Reactions 288
7.5.4 Induction of Metabolism 288
7.6 Compounds of Particular Concern 289
7.6.1 Hydrocarbons: Sources, Applications and Concerns 290
7.6.1.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 290
7.6.1.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 292
7.7 Legacy Contaminants 294
7.7.1 Organochlorine Insecticides 294
7.7.2 Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins and Dibenzofurans 296
7.7.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls 296
7.8 Current Use Pesticides 297
7.8.1 Organophosphate Insecticides 298
Case Study 7.1 Toxicity of Insecticide, Monocrotophos, to Swainson ’s Hawks 299
7.8.2 Carbamate Insecticides 299
7.8.3 Phenylpyrazole Insecticides 301
7.8.4 Pyrethroid Insecticides 301
7.8.5 Neonicotinoid Insecticides 302
7.8.6 Chlorophenoxy Herbicides 302
7.8.7 Bipyridilium Herbicides 303
7.8.8 Glyphosate Herbicide 303
7.8.9 Triazine Herbicides 304
7.8.10 Fungicides 304
7.9 Flame Retardants 305
7.10 Perfluoroalkyl Compounds 307
Capsule 7.1 Mobility, Bioavailability and Remediation of PFAS Compounds in Soils 309
(Michael J. McLaughlin)
7.11 Plasticizers 313
7.12 Pharmaceutically Active Compounds 315
Case Study 7.2 Decline of Populations of Gyps Vultures in South Asia 317
7.13 Toxicovigilance 318
Summary 319
Review Questions and Exercises 319
Abbreviations 320
References 321
8
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals 327
8.1 Endocrine Disruption 327
8.2 The Endocrine System and Its Disruption 328
8.2.1 Neuroendocrine Control 330
8.2.1.1 The Hypothalamic – Pituitary Axis 330
8.2.1.2 Neuroendocrine Disruption 331
8.2.2 Gonadotropins 332
8.2.3 Steroid Hormones 333
8.2.4 Thyroid Hormones 333
8.3 Hormone Receptors 336
8.4 Modes of Action of EDCs 337
8.4.1 Agonists and Antagonists 337
8.4.2 Altered Biosynthesis of Hormones 337
8.4.3 Binding to Hormone Transport Proteins 338
8.4.4 Altered Hormone Receptor Levels and Gene Expression 338
8.5 Examples of EDCs 338
8.5.1 Xenobiotics in Wastewater as Sex Steroid Mimics 341
Case Study 8.1 Gonadal Intersex in Fish 341
8.5.2 Phthalates as EDCs 342
8.5.3 Atrazine as an EDC 343
8.5.4 Flame Retardants as EDCs 343
8.5.5 Legacy Contaminants as EDCs 344
8.5.6 Organotins as EDCs 345
8.6 EDCs as a Human Health Concern 346
8.7 Conclusions 346
Summary 347
Review Questions and Exercises 347
Abbreviations 348
References 349
9
Natural Toxins 355
9.1 What Is a Toxin? 355
9.2 Evolutionary Perspective and Role of Natural Toxins 356
9.3 Toxins and Their Mode of Action 356
9.3.1 Toxins Produced by Harmful Algal Blooms 357
9.3.1.1 Domoic Acid 357
9.3.1.2 Saxitoxin 358
9.3.1.3 Brevotoxin 359
9.3.1.4 Okadaic Acid 360
9.3.1.5 Karlotoxin 360
9.3.1.6 Tetrodotoxin 361
9.3.1.7 Microcystins 361
9.3.1.8 Anatoxins 361
9.3.2 Toxins Produced by Vascular Plants 361
9.3.2.1 Naphthoquinones 362
9.3.2.2 Lectins 363
9.3.3 Toxins Produced by Microorganisms: Fungi and Bacteria 363
9.3.3.1 Anthrax Toxin 363
9.3.3.2 Microbial Methylation of Mercury 364
9.3.3.3 Fungal Toxins 364
9.3.4 Toxins Produced by Animals 365
9.3.4.1 Venoms 365
9.4 Defining the Ecological Advantage of Toxin Production 366
9.5 Applications of Natural Toxins 368
9.5.1 Pest-control Products 368
9.5.1.1 Bt insecticide 369
9.5.1.2 Quinones 370
9.5.2 Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism 370
9.6 Conclusions 370
Summary 371
Review Questions and Exercises 372
Abbreviations 372
References 373
Appendix 9.1: Summary of Some Toxins, Their Sources and Effects 375
10 Ionizing Radiation 379
Louise Winn Learning Objectives 379
10.1 Non-ionizing Versus Ionizing Radiation 379
10.2 Definitions 380
10.2.1 What Is Ionizing Radiation? 380
10.2.2 Units of Measurement 382
10.3 Sources of Ionizing Radiation 383
10.3.1 Background Ionizing Radiation 383
10.3.2 Manufactured Ionizing Radiation for Medical Use 385
10.3.3 Nuclear Weapons 385
10.3.4 Nuclear Power 386
10.3.4.1 Mining and Extraction 386
10.3.4.2 Enrichment, Conversion and Fuel Fabrication 386
10.3.4.3 In-core Fuel Management 386
10.3.4.4 Fuel Reprocessing 387
10.3.5 Nuclear Waste Management 387
10.3.5.1 Short-lived Intermediate and Low-level Waste 388
10.3.5.2 Long-lived Intermediate and High-level Waste 388
10.4 Case Studies 389
Case Study 10.1 The Chernobyl Accident 389
Case Study 10.2 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant 390
10.5 Effects of Ionizing Radiation at the Molecular and Cellular Levels 391
10.5.1 Cell Death 393
10.5.2 DNA Damage 393
10.5.3 Protein Damage 394
10.5.4 Lipid Damage 394
10.5.5 Epigenetic Effects 394
10.5.6 Effects on the Immune System 395
10.6 Risk Assessment of Ionizing Radiation 395
10.7 Ecological Effects of Radiation 398
Capsule 10.1 Radiological Protection of the Environment 399
(Nicholas A. Beresford and David Copplestone)
10.8 Conclusions 403
Summary 404
Review Questions and Exercises 404
Abbreviations 404
References 405
PART III COMPLEX ISSUES 409
11 Complex Issues, Multiple Stressors and Lessons Learned 411
11.1 Acidification of Freshwater, Terrestrial and Marine Systems 411
11.1.1 Freshwater Acidification 412
11.1.1.1 Chemical Effects 412
11.1.1.2 Physical Changes 413
11.1.1.3 Biological Effects and Risks for Sensitive Aquatic Systems 413
11.1.2 The Effects of Acidification on Terrestrial Systems 414
11.1.3 Regulation of Acidic Emissions and Recovery of Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems 415
11.1.3.1 Abatement 416
11.1.3.2 Treatment 417
11.1.4 Acidification of Marine Systems: ‘The Other CO2 Problem’ 417
11.1.5 Lessons Learned 418
11.2 Metal Mining and Smelting 419
11.2.1 The Issue 419
Capsule 11.1 Mercury and Silver: A History of Unexpected Environmental Consequences 420
(Saul Guerrero)
11.2.2 Processes Involved in the Extraction and Purification of Metals 424
11.2.3 Substances of Concern 426
11.2.4 Ecotoxicological Impacts of Metal Mining and Smelting 427
11.2.4.1 Rivers 428
11.2.4.2 Lakes 430
11.2.4.3 Coastal Marine Environments 430
11.2.5 Lessons Learned 431
11.3 Engineered Nanomaterials 431
11.3.1 Routes of Exposure and Environmental Fate 433
11.3.2 How Do Engineered Nanomaterials Enter Living Organisms? 434
11.3.3 In Search of Nanotoxicity 435
11.3.4 Lessons Learned 437
Case Study 11.1 Whole-lake Addition of Nanosilver 438
11.4 Pulp and Paper Production 439
11.4.1 Evolution of Pulp and Paper Environmental Issues 440
11.4.1.1 Making Paper from Wood 440
11.4.1.2 Power Dams: Pulp Mills Need Water 442
11.4.1.3 Oxygen Consuming and Toxic Wastes from Wood Pulping 442
11.4.1.4 Toxic Chemicals from Pulp Bleaching 444
11.4.2 Lessons Learned 445
Summary 446
Review Questions and Exercises 447
Abbreviations 448
References 448
PART IV MANAGEMENT 455
12
Regulatory Toxicology and Ecological Risk Assessment 457
12.1 The Need for Chemical Management and Regulation 457
12.2 Legislation for Chemical Management 458
12.2.1 The Process of Regulation 459
12.2.1.1 Policy 459
12.2.1.2 Legislation 459
12.2.1.3 Regulations 459
12.2.1.4 Departmental Responsibilities and Options for Chemical Management 460
12.2.2 International Law and Multilateral Agreements 460
12.2.3 Regulatory Challenges and Disparities 461
12.2.3.1 Factors That Affect the Development and Implementation of Chemical Regulations 461
12.3 Applying Ecotoxicology to Support Chemical Management 462
12.3.1 Numerical Limits: Criteria, Objectives, Standards, Guidelines (contributed by Douglas J. Spry) 463
12.3.1.1 How Numerical Limits Are Developed 463
12.3.1.2 Numerical Limits for Soils, Sediments and Biological Tissue 464
12.3.1.3 Future of Numerical Limits 465
12.3.2 Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) 465
12.3.2.1 The Methodology of Ecological Risk Assessment 465
12.3.2.2 Problem Formulation 466
12.3.2.3 Analysis 467
12.3.2.4 Risk Characterization 467
12.3.2.5 Applications of ERA: Specific Chemicals 467
12.3.2.6 Handling Uncertainty: An Integral Part of ERA 468
12.3.3 Regulations for Individual Chemicals and Complex Mixtures in Environmental Media 469
12.3.4 Enforcement of Environmental Regulations 470
Capsule 12.1 The Sudbury Soils Study: An Area-wide Ecological Risk Assessment 471
(Christopher D. Wren, Glen Watson and Marc Butler)
12.3.5 Environmental Surveillance and Monitoring 476
Case Study 12.1 Monitoring Rivers to Assess the Adequacy of Pesticide Regulations 477
12.4 The Future of Environmental Regulation 477
Capsule 12.2 Legislation for Chemical Management – Traditional Environmental Knowledge in the Regulation of Chemical Contaminants? 478
(F. Henry Lickers)
Summary 482
Review Questions and Exercises 482
Abbreviations 483
References 484
13
Recovery of Contaminated Sites 487
13.1 Background 487
13.2 Component Disciplines and Goals 488
13.3 Definitions and Concepts 490
13.4 Triggers for Action Towards Recovery 490
13.5 Methods and Approaches for Recovery 491
13.6 Engineering 492
13.6.1 Removal and Off-site Disposal of Contaminated Material 492
13.6.2 On-site Remediation 493
Case Study 13.1 Entombment 493
13.7 Monitored Natural Recovery (MNR) 494
13.7.1 Passive Recovery for Surface Water 494
13.7.2 Passive Recovery and Natural Attenuation for Sediments and Soils 495
Capsule 13.1 The Enduring Legacy of Point-source Mercury Pollution 496
(John W. M. Rudd and Carol A. Kelly)
Case Study 13.2 Recovery of Saglek Bay, Labrador 500
13.8 Bioremediation 503
Capsule 13.2 Bioremediation of Oil Spills 504
(Charles W. Greer)
13.9 Recolonization and Phytoremediation 507
13.9.1 Recolonization by Plants 507
13.9.2 Recolonization by Fish and Other Animals 508
13.9.3 Phytoremediation 509
13.10 Conclusions 510
Summary 511
Review Questions and Exercises 511
Abbreviations 512
References 512
14
Emerging Concerns and Future Visions 515
14.1 Climate Change and Its Role in Ecotoxicology 515
14.1.1 Interactions Between Climate Change and Ecotoxicology 517
14.1.1.1 Ecotoxicological Effects of Climate Change on Individual Species 518
14.1.1.2 Interspecific Effects of Climate Change on Ecotoxicology 520
14.1.2 Regional Considerations 521
14.1.3 Future Considerations 522
14.2 Microplastics and Nanoplastics 522
14.2.1 Toxicology of Microplastics 524
14.2.1.1 Adverse Physical Effects Through Tissue Damage and Inhibition of Movement 524
14.2.1.2 Cellular Invasion by Small Particles (Nanospecific Effect) 525
14.2.1.3 Toxicity of Chemical Constituents of Microplastics 525
14.2.1.4 Toxicity of Adsorbed Chemicals 525
14.2.2 Future Considerations 526
14.2.2.1 Establishing Cause and Effect 526
14.2.2.2 Mitigation 526
14.3 Emerging Inorganic Contaminants 528
14.3.1 Trends in Mining Activities 528
14.3.2 Trends in Metal Use 529
Capsule 14.1 Lithium – A Critical Mineral Element: Sources, Extraction and Ecotoxicology 531
(Heather Jamieson)
14.3.3 Future Considerations 534
Case Study 14.1 Deep-sea Mining 534
14.4 Emerging Concerns about Organic Contaminants 539
14.4.1 Monitoring 539
14.4.2 Non-targeted Screening 540
14.4.3 Toxicity Evaluation 541
14.4.4 Predictive Toxicology 542
14.4.5 Applications of Predictive Toxicology in Ecological Risk Assessment 543
14.4.6 Future Considerations 544
Summary 544
Review Questions and Exercises 545
Abbreviations 546
References 547
Epilogue: A Final Perspective 551
Updating Ecotoxicology 551
Ecological Risk Assessments; Environmental Decision-making and Indigenous Rights 551
Reliance on Environmental Modelling in Evaluating New Chemicals 552
Interactions Between Ecotoxicology and Human-induced Environmental Changes 552
Looking to the Future 553
Index 555 |
Ecotoxicology [texte imprimé] / Campbel Peter G. C., Auteur ; et autresl . - Cambridge University Press, 2022 . - 576 pages ; 21 x 28 cm. ISBN : 978-1-108-83469-8 Langues : Anglais ( eng)
| Catégories : |
Ecologie
|
| Index. décimale : |
577 - Ecologie |
| Résumé : |
"Ecotoxicology offers a comprehensive overview of the science underpinning the recognition and management of environmental contamination. It describes the toxicology of environmental contaminants, the methods used for assessing their toxicity and ecological impacts, and approaches employed to mitigate pollution and ecological health risks globally. Chapters covers the latest advances in research, including genomics, natural toxins, endocrine disruption and the toxicology of radioactive substances. The second half of the book focuses on applications, such as cradle-to-grave effects of selected industries, legal and economic approaches to environmental regulation, ecological risk assessment, and contaminated site remediation. With short capsules written by invited experts, numerous case studies from around the world and further reading lists, this textbook is designed for advanced undergraduate and graduate one-semester courses. It is also a valuable reference for graduate students and professionals. Online resources for instructors and students are also available" (site web de l'éditeur) |
| Note de contenu : |
CONTENTS :
Preamble
Page xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgements xix
PART I APPROACHES AND METHODS 1
1 The History and Emergence of Ecotoxicology as a Science 3
Learning Objectives 3
1.1 The Science of Ecotoxicology 3
1.2 Historical Landmarks in the Development of Ecotoxicology 7
1.2.1 Silent Spring and Pesticides 7
1.2.2 Mercury 10
1.2.3 Acidification 10
1.2.4 Industrial Waste Disposal and Brownfields 11
1.2.5 Oil Spills 12
1.2.6 Our Stolen Future and Endocrine Disruptors 12
1.3 The Emergence of the Science of Ecotoxicology 13
1.4 The Turning Point and Formal Regulation of Toxic Substances 15
1.5 Solutions That May Lead to New Problems 16
1.6 Conclusions 17
Summary 18
Review Questions and Exercises 18
Abbreviations 19
References 19
2
Measuring Toxicity 23
2.1 The Basics of Environmental Toxicology 23
2.1.1 Concepts and Definitions 24
2.1.1.1 What Is Toxicity? 24
2.1.1.2 Chemical Structure vs Toxicity 24
2.1.1.3 Nutrients vs Toxicants 25
2.1.1.4 Expressions of Toxicity 26
2.2 Designing a Toxicity Test: What Is the Question? 28
2.2.1 Test Organisms 29
2.2.1.1 Laboratory Cultures of Test Organisms 30
2.2.1.2 Life Stages Tested and Responses Measured 31
2.2.2 Test Media and Routes of Exposure 32
2.2.3 Exposure Gradients 33
2.2.4 Exposure Time 33
2.2.5 Control Treatments 36
2.2.6 Other Test Conditions That Affect Measured Toxicity 36
2.2.7 Characterizing Test Conditions and Chemical Exposures 38
2.2.8 Complexities in Toxicity Testing 39
2.2.8.1 Toxicity Tests for Sparingly Soluble Compounds 39
2.2.8.2 Sediment and Soil Toxicity Tests 39
2.2.8.3 Standard vs ‘Realistic’ Toxicity Tests 41
2.2.8.4 Surrogate Species for Routine Testing 41
2.3 Statistics for Toxicity Tests 42
2.3.1 Regression Analyses for Computing Toxicity 42
2.3.1.1 Data Types and Transformations 43
2.3.1.2 Control Data 44
2.3.2 Hypothesis Testing: Multiple Regression Analyses 44
2.3.3 Predictive Toxicology: Single Compounds 45
2.3.3.1 Acute to Chronic Ratios (ACRs) 46
2.3.3.2 Species Sensitivity Distributions (SSDs) 47
2.3.3.3 Quantitative Structure – Activity Relationships (QSARs) 47
2.3.4 Predictive Toxicology: Mixtures 48
2.3.4.1 Toxic Unit (TU) Model 48
2.3.4.2 Toxic Equivalent Factor (TEF) Model 49
2.3.4.3 Target Lipid Model 49
2.3.4.4 Metal Mixtures 50
2.3.4.5 Dissecting Complex Mixtures 51
2.3.5 Moving Away from Traditional Toxicity Tests 52
Summary 54
Review Questions and Exercises 54
Abbreviations 55
References 56
3
Contaminant Uptake and Bioaccumulation: Mechanisms, Kinetics and Modelling 61
3.1 General Considerations 61
3.1.1 Composition and Structure of Biological Membranes 62
3.1.2 Transport of Solutes Across Cell Membranes 64
3.1.2.1 Diffusion Through the Lipid Bilayer 65
3.1.2.2 Diffusion Through Membrane Pores and Channels 65
3.1.2.3 Carrier-mediated Transport 69
3.1.3 Endocytosis 71
3.1.4 Transcellular Transport (e.g., Gill;Intestine; Lung) 71
3.1.5 Ecotoxicological Perspective on Transmembrane Transport Processes 72
3.2 Uptake Routes 73
3.2.1 Skin 73
3.2.2 Lungs 73
3.2.3 Gills 74
3.2.4 Digestive System 75
3.2.5 Olfactory System 76
3.2.6 Plant Foliage and Roots 76
3.2.7 Boundary Layers 78
3.2.8 Uptake by Endocytosis 78
3.2.9 How Different Exposure Routes Affect the Rates of Toxicant Uptake 79
3.3 Elimination Routes 79
3.4 Bioaccumulation and Uptake – Elimination Kinetics 79
3.4.1 Toxicant Uptake: Differences Between Lipophilic and Hydrophilic Molecules 81
3.4.2 Toxicokinetics 83
3.4.2.1 One-compartment Model 83
3.4.2.2 Two-compartment Model 84
3.5 Biotransformations 85
3.5.1 Metals 85
3.5.2 Organic Xenobiotics 86
3.6 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification 87
3.6.1 Metals 87
3.6.2 Bioaccumulation of Persistent Organic Contaminants 88
3.6.2.1 Lipophilic Contaminants 88
3.6.2.2 Interplay Between Bioenergetics and Bioaccumulation of Lipophilic Contaminants 90
3.6.2.3 Proteinophilic Contaminants 91
Summary 91
Review Questions and Exercises 92
Abbreviations 93
References 93
Appendix 3.1: Kinetics of a Saturable Transmembrane Carrier System Transporting a Chemical Substrate 95
Appendix 3.2: Uptake/Loss Kinetics in a Single-compartment System 95
4
Methods in Ecotoxicology 99
4.1 Moving Beyond Environmental Toxicology 99
4.2 Laboratory Versus Field Studies of Ecotoxicology: Strengths and Weaknesses 100
4.3 Surveys, Monitoring and Assessment 102
4.3.1 Relating Cause and Effect by Surveys and Monitoring 102
Case Study 4.1 Upstream – Downstream Studies to Assess Whether Pulp-mill Effluents Affect the Sexual Maturation of Fish 104
4.3.2 Ecoepidemiology: Assessing the Strength of Proposed Cause – Effect Relationships 105
Case Study 4.2 The Ecoepidemiological Case for Cancer in Fish Caused by Sediment Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds (PACs) 107
4.3.3 Markers and Indicators of Chemical Exposure and Effects 107
4.3.3.1 Chemical Markers 108
4.3.3.2 Biomarkers 108
4.3.3.3 Bioindicators 109
4.3.3.4 The Sediment Quality Triad 111
4.3.3.5 Summary: Markers and Indicators 112
4.3.4 Palaeo-ecotoxicology: Retrospective Assessment of Contamination and Toxicity 112
Case Study 4.3 Evidence from Palaeo-ecotoxicology for a Chemical Cause of Reproductive Failure of Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) in Lake Ontario 114
4.3.5 Monitoring the Human Food Supply 115
4.4 Field Experiments 117
4.4.1 In Situ Toxicity Tests 117
4.4.2 Experimental Plots 118
Case Study 4.4 The Effectiveness of Fertilizers in Promoting Degradation of Crude Oil Spilled on a Vegetated Wetland 118
4.4.3 Experimental Ecosystems 119
Case Study 4.5 Whole-lake Experiment with an Endocrine Disruptor 122
4.5 Modelling Environmental Fate, Behaviour, Distribution and Effects of Chemicals 122
4.5.1 Chemical Fate Modelling 123
4.5.2 Bioaccumulation and Effects Modelling 126
Case Study 4.6 PCB Contamination of the Southern Resident Killer Whale 128
4.5.3 Integrated Effects Modelling 129
Summary 130
Review Questions and Exercises 131
Abbreviations 131
References 132
5
Ecotoxicogenomics 139
5.1 Environmental ‘Omics’: A Role in Ecotoxicology Research 139
5.2 Ecotoxicology and Transcriptomics 141
5.2.1 Application of Ecotoxicogenomics 142
5.3 Ecotoxicology and Proteomics 144
5.4 Ecotoxicology and Metabolomics/ Lipidomics 146
5.5 Ecotoxicology and Epigenetics 147
5.6 Environmental DNA (eDNA) 149
5.7 Ecotoxicology and the Microbiome (Metagenomics) 149
5.8 Ecotoxicology and Bioinformatics 150
5.9 Omics and Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs) 152
5.10 Omics in Regulatory Toxicology 153
5.10.1 Computational Toxicology in Regulatory Toxicology 154
Case Study 5.1 Omics to Reveal Mechanisms Underlying Glyphosate Toxicity in Invertebrates and Vertebrates 155
5.10.2 Environmental Omics in Regulatory Toxicology 157
5.10.3 Challenges and Considerations 157
5.11 Emerging Applications for Omics in Ecotoxicology 159
5.11.1 Genome-wide CRISPR Screens in Ecotoxicology 160
5.11.2 Multi-omics, Exposome and Exposomics in Ecotoxicology 161
Summary 161
Review Questions and Exercises 162
Abbreviations 162
References 163
PART II TOXICOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL SUBSTANCES 169
6
Metals and Metalloids 171
6.1 Introduction 171
6.2 Biogeochemistry of Metals and Metalloids 174
6.2.1 General Properties: Metal Speciation 174
6.2.2 Mobilization, Binding, Transport and Chemical Forms of Metals in the Environment 178
6.3 Biological Availability of Metals in Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems 179
6.3.1 General Considerations 180
6.3.2 Aquatic Environments: Dissolved Metals 180
6.3.3 Aquatic Environments: Particulate Metals 184
6.3.4 Terrestrial Environments 185
6.3.5 Diet-borne Metals 186
6.4 Mechanisms of Metal Toxicity 187
6.4.1 Alteration of Enzyme Conformation 188
6.4.2 Displacement of Essential Cations 188
6.4.3 Oxidative Stress 189
6.4.4 Changes to Cellular Differentiation 190
6.4.5 Behavioural Effects 190
Capsule 6.1 Metal Effects on Fish Olfaction 191
(Gregory G. Pyle)
6.5 Metal Detoxification and Tolerance 195
6.5.1 Metal Speciation Within Cells 195
6.5.2 Determination of Subcellular Metal Partitioning 196
6.5.3 Links Among Changes in Metal Exposure, Changes in Metal Subcellular Distribution and the Onset of Deleterious Effects 197
6.5.3.1 Laboratory Observations 198
6.5.3.2 Field Observations 199
Case Study 6.1 Response of Native Freshwater Animals to Metals Derived from Base-metal Smelter Emissions 199
6.5.4 Metal Tolerance 202
6.5.4.1 Occurrence and Origin 202
6.5.4.2 Approaches 202
6.5.4.3 Taxonomic Distribution of Tolerance 203
6.5.4.4 Tolerance Mechanisms 203
6.5.4.5 Ecotoxicological Implications and Practical Applications 205
6.6 Organometals (Hg, Pb, Sn, As, Sb, Se) 206
6.7 Abiotic Factors Affecting Metal Toxicity 206
6.7.1 Temperature 206
6.7.2 pH 207
6.7.3 Hardness 208
6.7.4 Salinity 208
6.7.5 Dissolved Organic Matter 209
6.8 Metal-specific Sections 209
6.8.1 Mercury 210
6.8.1.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 210
6.8.1.2 Biogeochemistry 212
6.8.1.3 Mercury Methylation 214
6.8.1.4 Biogeochemical Cycle 215
6.8.1.5 Mercury Biomagnification 217
6.8.1.6 Environmental Factors Affecting Mercury Bioaccumulation 219
6.8.1.7 Mercury Bioaccumulation and Monitoring 221
6.8.1.8 Ecotoxicity 221
6.8.1.9 Detoxification and Tolerance 224
6.8.1.10 Mercury Highlights 225
6.8.2 Cadmium 225
6.8.2.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 226
6.8.2.2 Biogeochemistry 226
6.8.2.3 Biochemistry 226
6.8.2.4 Ecotoxicity 227
6.8.2.5 Cadmium Highlights 228
6.8.3 Lead 228
6.8.3.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 228
6.8.3.2 Biogeochemistry 230
6.8.3.3 Biochemistry 231
6.8.3.4 Ecotoxicity 232
6.8.3.5 Lead Highlights 234
6.8.4 Copper 234
6.8.4.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 234
6.8.4.2 Biogeochemistry 235
6.8.4.3 Biochemistry 236
6.8.4.4 Ecotoxicity 237
6.8.4.5 Copper Highlights 239
6.8.5 Nickel 239
6.8.5.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 239
6.8.5.2 Biogeochemistry 240
6.8.5.3 Biochemistry 240
6.8.5.4 Ecotoxicity 241
6.8.5.5 Nickel Highlights 243
6.8.6 Zinc 243
6.8.6.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 243
6.8.6.2 Biogeochemistry 244
6.8.6.3 Biochemistry 245
6.8.6.4 Ecotoxicity 246
6.8.6.5 Zinc Highlights 248
6.8.7 Arsenic 248
6.8.7.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 248
6.8.7.2 Biogeochemistry 249
6.8.7.3 Biochemistry 251
6.8.7.4 Ecotoxicity 252
6.8.7.5 Arsenic Highlights 254
6.8.8 Selenium 255
6.8.8.1 Occurrence, Sources and Uses 255
6.8.8.2 Biogeochemistry 255
6.8.8.3 Biochemistry 256
6.8.8.4 Ecotoxicity 257
6.8.8.5 Selenium Highlights 259
Summary 259
Review Questions and Exercises 260
Element-specific Questions 261
Abbreviations 262
References 262
7
Organic Compounds 275
7.1 Classes of Organic Compounds 275
7.2 Fate in the Environment 277
7.3 Uptake into Organisms and Bioaccumulation 280
7.4 Cellular Receptors 281
7.5 Metabolism 282
7.5.1 Phase I Reactions 283
7.5.2 Phase II Reactions 287
7.5.3 Phase III Reactions 288
7.5.4 Induction of Metabolism 288
7.6 Compounds of Particular Concern 289
7.6.1 Hydrocarbons: Sources, Applications and Concerns 290
7.6.1.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 290
7.6.1.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 292
7.7 Legacy Contaminants 294
7.7.1 Organochlorine Insecticides 294
7.7.2 Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins and Dibenzofurans 296
7.7.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls 296
7.8 Current Use Pesticides 297
7.8.1 Organophosphate Insecticides 298
Case Study 7.1 Toxicity of Insecticide, Monocrotophos, to Swainson ’s Hawks 299
7.8.2 Carbamate Insecticides 299
7.8.3 Phenylpyrazole Insecticides 301
7.8.4 Pyrethroid Insecticides 301
7.8.5 Neonicotinoid Insecticides 302
7.8.6 Chlorophenoxy Herbicides 302
7.8.7 Bipyridilium Herbicides 303
7.8.8 Glyphosate Herbicide 303
7.8.9 Triazine Herbicides 304
7.8.10 Fungicides 304
7.9 Flame Retardants 305
7.10 Perfluoroalkyl Compounds 307
Capsule 7.1 Mobility, Bioavailability and Remediation of PFAS Compounds in Soils 309
(Michael J. McLaughlin)
7.11 Plasticizers 313
7.12 Pharmaceutically Active Compounds 315
Case Study 7.2 Decline of Populations of Gyps Vultures in South Asia 317
7.13 Toxicovigilance 318
Summary 319
Review Questions and Exercises 319
Abbreviations 320
References 321
8
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals 327
8.1 Endocrine Disruption 327
8.2 The Endocrine System and Its Disruption 328
8.2.1 Neuroendocrine Control 330
8.2.1.1 The Hypothalamic – Pituitary Axis 330
8.2.1.2 Neuroendocrine Disruption 331
8.2.2 Gonadotropins 332
8.2.3 Steroid Hormones 333
8.2.4 Thyroid Hormones 333
8.3 Hormone Receptors 336
8.4 Modes of Action of EDCs 337
8.4.1 Agonists and Antagonists 337
8.4.2 Altered Biosynthesis of Hormones 337
8.4.3 Binding to Hormone Transport Proteins 338
8.4.4 Altered Hormone Receptor Levels and Gene Expression 338
8.5 Examples of EDCs 338
8.5.1 Xenobiotics in Wastewater as Sex Steroid Mimics 341
Case Study 8.1 Gonadal Intersex in Fish 341
8.5.2 Phthalates as EDCs 342
8.5.3 Atrazine as an EDC 343
8.5.4 Flame Retardants as EDCs 343
8.5.5 Legacy Contaminants as EDCs 344
8.5.6 Organotins as EDCs 345
8.6 EDCs as a Human Health Concern 346
8.7 Conclusions 346
Summary 347
Review Questions and Exercises 347
Abbreviations 348
References 349
9
Natural Toxins 355
9.1 What Is a Toxin? 355
9.2 Evolutionary Perspective and Role of Natural Toxins 356
9.3 Toxins and Their Mode of Action 356
9.3.1 Toxins Produced by Harmful Algal Blooms 357
9.3.1.1 Domoic Acid 357
9.3.1.2 Saxitoxin 358
9.3.1.3 Brevotoxin 359
9.3.1.4 Okadaic Acid 360
9.3.1.5 Karlotoxin 360
9.3.1.6 Tetrodotoxin 361
9.3.1.7 Microcystins 361
9.3.1.8 Anatoxins 361
9.3.2 Toxins Produced by Vascular Plants 361
9.3.2.1 Naphthoquinones 362
9.3.2.2 Lectins 363
9.3.3 Toxins Produced by Microorganisms: Fungi and Bacteria 363
9.3.3.1 Anthrax Toxin 363
9.3.3.2 Microbial Methylation of Mercury 364
9.3.3.3 Fungal Toxins 364
9.3.4 Toxins Produced by Animals 365
9.3.4.1 Venoms 365
9.4 Defining the Ecological Advantage of Toxin Production 366
9.5 Applications of Natural Toxins 368
9.5.1 Pest-control Products 368
9.5.1.1 Bt insecticide 369
9.5.1.2 Quinones 370
9.5.2 Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism 370
9.6 Conclusions 370
Summary 371
Review Questions and Exercises 372
Abbreviations 372
References 373
Appendix 9.1: Summary of Some Toxins, Their Sources and Effects 375
10 Ionizing Radiation 379
Louise Winn Learning Objectives 379
10.1 Non-ionizing Versus Ionizing Radiation 379
10.2 Definitions 380
10.2.1 What Is Ionizing Radiation? 380
10.2.2 Units of Measurement 382
10.3 Sources of Ionizing Radiation 383
10.3.1 Background Ionizing Radiation 383
10.3.2 Manufactured Ionizing Radiation for Medical Use 385
10.3.3 Nuclear Weapons 385
10.3.4 Nuclear Power 386
10.3.4.1 Mining and Extraction 386
10.3.4.2 Enrichment, Conversion and Fuel Fabrication 386
10.3.4.3 In-core Fuel Management 386
10.3.4.4 Fuel Reprocessing 387
10.3.5 Nuclear Waste Management 387
10.3.5.1 Short-lived Intermediate and Low-level Waste 388
10.3.5.2 Long-lived Intermediate and High-level Waste 388
10.4 Case Studies 389
Case Study 10.1 The Chernobyl Accident 389
Case Study 10.2 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant 390
10.5 Effects of Ionizing Radiation at the Molecular and Cellular Levels 391
10.5.1 Cell Death 393
10.5.2 DNA Damage 393
10.5.3 Protein Damage 394
10.5.4 Lipid Damage 394
10.5.5 Epigenetic Effects 394
10.5.6 Effects on the Immune System 395
10.6 Risk Assessment of Ionizing Radiation 395
10.7 Ecological Effects of Radiation 398
Capsule 10.1 Radiological Protection of the Environment 399
(Nicholas A. Beresford and David Copplestone)
10.8 Conclusions 403
Summary 404
Review Questions and Exercises 404
Abbreviations 404
References 405
PART III COMPLEX ISSUES 409
11 Complex Issues, Multiple Stressors and Lessons Learned 411
11.1 Acidification of Freshwater, Terrestrial and Marine Systems 411
11.1.1 Freshwater Acidification 412
11.1.1.1 Chemical Effects 412
11.1.1.2 Physical Changes 413
11.1.1.3 Biological Effects and Risks for Sensitive Aquatic Systems 413
11.1.2 The Effects of Acidification on Terrestrial Systems 414
11.1.3 Regulation of Acidic Emissions and Recovery of Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems 415
11.1.3.1 Abatement 416
11.1.3.2 Treatment 417
11.1.4 Acidification of Marine Systems: ‘The Other CO2 Problem’ 417
11.1.5 Lessons Learned 418
11.2 Metal Mining and Smelting 419
11.2.1 The Issue 419
Capsule 11.1 Mercury and Silver: A History of Unexpected Environmental Consequences 420
(Saul Guerrero)
11.2.2 Processes Involved in the Extraction and Purification of Metals 424
11.2.3 Substances of Concern 426
11.2.4 Ecotoxicological Impacts of Metal Mining and Smelting 427
11.2.4.1 Rivers 428
11.2.4.2 Lakes 430
11.2.4.3 Coastal Marine Environments 430
11.2.5 Lessons Learned 431
11.3 Engineered Nanomaterials 431
11.3.1 Routes of Exposure and Environmental Fate 433
11.3.2 How Do Engineered Nanomaterials Enter Living Organisms? 434
11.3.3 In Search of Nanotoxicity 435
11.3.4 Lessons Learned 437
Case Study 11.1 Whole-lake Addition of Nanosilver 438
11.4 Pulp and Paper Production 439
11.4.1 Evolution of Pulp and Paper Environmental Issues 440
11.4.1.1 Making Paper from Wood 440
11.4.1.2 Power Dams: Pulp Mills Need Water 442
11.4.1.3 Oxygen Consuming and Toxic Wastes from Wood Pulping 442
11.4.1.4 Toxic Chemicals from Pulp Bleaching 444
11.4.2 Lessons Learned 445
Summary 446
Review Questions and Exercises 447
Abbreviations 448
References 448
PART IV MANAGEMENT 455
12
Regulatory Toxicology and Ecological Risk Assessment 457
12.1 The Need for Chemical Management and Regulation 457
12.2 Legislation for Chemical Management 458
12.2.1 The Process of Regulation 459
12.2.1.1 Policy 459
12.2.1.2 Legislation 459
12.2.1.3 Regulations 459
12.2.1.4 Departmental Responsibilities and Options for Chemical Management 460
12.2.2 International Law and Multilateral Agreements 460
12.2.3 Regulatory Challenges and Disparities 461
12.2.3.1 Factors That Affect the Development and Implementation of Chemical Regulations 461
12.3 Applying Ecotoxicology to Support Chemical Management 462
12.3.1 Numerical Limits: Criteria, Objectives, Standards, Guidelines (contributed by Douglas J. Spry) 463
12.3.1.1 How Numerical Limits Are Developed 463
12.3.1.2 Numerical Limits for Soils, Sediments and Biological Tissue 464
12.3.1.3 Future of Numerical Limits 465
12.3.2 Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) 465
12.3.2.1 The Methodology of Ecological Risk Assessment 465
12.3.2.2 Problem Formulation 466
12.3.2.3 Analysis 467
12.3.2.4 Risk Characterization 467
12.3.2.5 Applications of ERA: Specific Chemicals 467
12.3.2.6 Handling Uncertainty: An Integral Part of ERA 468
12.3.3 Regulations for Individual Chemicals and Complex Mixtures in Environmental Media 469
12.3.4 Enforcement of Environmental Regulations 470
Capsule 12.1 The Sudbury Soils Study: An Area-wide Ecological Risk Assessment 471
(Christopher D. Wren, Glen Watson and Marc Butler)
12.3.5 Environmental Surveillance and Monitoring 476
Case Study 12.1 Monitoring Rivers to Assess the Adequacy of Pesticide Regulations 477
12.4 The Future of Environmental Regulation 477
Capsule 12.2 Legislation for Chemical Management – Traditional Environmental Knowledge in the Regulation of Chemical Contaminants? 478
(F. Henry Lickers)
Summary 482
Review Questions and Exercises 482
Abbreviations 483
References 484
13
Recovery of Contaminated Sites 487
13.1 Background 487
13.2 Component Disciplines and Goals 488
13.3 Definitions and Concepts 490
13.4 Triggers for Action Towards Recovery 490
13.5 Methods and Approaches for Recovery 491
13.6 Engineering 492
13.6.1 Removal and Off-site Disposal of Contaminated Material 492
13.6.2 On-site Remediation 493
Case Study 13.1 Entombment 493
13.7 Monitored Natural Recovery (MNR) 494
13.7.1 Passive Recovery for Surface Water 494
13.7.2 Passive Recovery and Natural Attenuation for Sediments and Soils 495
Capsule 13.1 The Enduring Legacy of Point-source Mercury Pollution 496
(John W. M. Rudd and Carol A. Kelly)
Case Study 13.2 Recovery of Saglek Bay, Labrador 500
13.8 Bioremediation 503
Capsule 13.2 Bioremediation of Oil Spills 504
(Charles W. Greer)
13.9 Recolonization and Phytoremediation 507
13.9.1 Recolonization by Plants 507
13.9.2 Recolonization by Fish and Other Animals 508
13.9.3 Phytoremediation 509
13.10 Conclusions 510
Summary 511
Review Questions and Exercises 511
Abbreviations 512
References 512
14
Emerging Concerns and Future Visions 515
14.1 Climate Change and Its Role in Ecotoxicology 515
14.1.1 Interactions Between Climate Change and Ecotoxicology 517
14.1.1.1 Ecotoxicological Effects of Climate Change on Individual Species 518
14.1.1.2 Interspecific Effects of Climate Change on Ecotoxicology 520
14.1.2 Regional Considerations 521
14.1.3 Future Considerations 522
14.2 Microplastics and Nanoplastics 522
14.2.1 Toxicology of Microplastics 524
14.2.1.1 Adverse Physical Effects Through Tissue Damage and Inhibition of Movement 524
14.2.1.2 Cellular Invasion by Small Particles (Nanospecific Effect) 525
14.2.1.3 Toxicity of Chemical Constituents of Microplastics 525
14.2.1.4 Toxicity of Adsorbed Chemicals 525
14.2.2 Future Considerations 526
14.2.2.1 Establishing Cause and Effect 526
14.2.2.2 Mitigation 526
14.3 Emerging Inorganic Contaminants 528
14.3.1 Trends in Mining Activities 528
14.3.2 Trends in Metal Use 529
Capsule 14.1 Lithium – A Critical Mineral Element: Sources, Extraction and Ecotoxicology 531
(Heather Jamieson)
14.3.3 Future Considerations 534
Case Study 14.1 Deep-sea Mining 534
14.4 Emerging Concerns about Organic Contaminants 539
14.4.1 Monitoring 539
14.4.2 Non-targeted Screening 540
14.4.3 Toxicity Evaluation 541
14.4.4 Predictive Toxicology 542
14.4.5 Applications of Predictive Toxicology in Ecological Risk Assessment 543
14.4.6 Future Considerations 544
Summary 544
Review Questions and Exercises 545
Abbreviations 546
References 547
Epilogue: A Final Perspective 551
Updating Ecotoxicology 551
Ecological Risk Assessments; Environmental Decision-making and Indigenous Rights 551
Reliance on Environmental Modelling in Evaluating New Chemicals 552
Interactions Between Ecotoxicology and Human-induced Environmental Changes 552
Looking to the Future 553
Index 555 |
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